Articles written by Isaac M. McPhee
All 310 articles written by Isaac M. McPhee
The Game of Life: A Fun Game and Interesting Mathematical Model of Biological Life
Category: Math
In 1970, British mathematician John Conway invented "The Game of Life," which became increasingly popular throughout the nineteen seventies among math enthusiasts. more...
Using Roman Numerals: A Brief Guide to The Alphabetical Numbers
Category: Math/Chaos Theory (general)
How long until Superbowl CII? What is LXIV + DCM? These are questions that most modern individuals could not reasonably know how to answer. more...
Who Was Archimedes?: A Glimpse into Antiquity's Greatest Mathematician
Category: Math
Archimedes is highly regarded in many circles. It was his remarkable mind - unrivaled but for a few individuals in history - which led to his legendary historical status. more...
Ludwig Boltzmann's Statistics: The Mathematical Principles to Aid Atomic Theory
Category: Math/Chaos Theory (general)
When Atomic Theory began to grow in popularity during the nineteenth century, it did so in part thanks to the mathematical work of Austrian Physicist Ludwig Boltzmann. more...
The Mathematics of the Beatles: Another Breakthrough using Modern Mathematics to Understand Music
Category: Math/Chaos Theory (general)
In October of 2008, a math professor at Dalhousie University in Nova Scotia revealed an astonishing discovery: He had used math to understand the music of the Beatles! more...
The Math and Physics of Golf Balls: New Research Brings a New Scientific Approach to the Game
Category: Math/Chaos Theory (general)
New methods of computation are allowing mathematicians and physicists to finally begin to truly understand the physics of airflow around golf balls in flight. more...
Computer-Assisted Proofs: Using Cutting-Edge Technology to Solve the Most Advanced Problems
Category: Math/Chaos Theory (general)
Much of mathematics, both theoretical and practical, has been built up throughout the centuries in the language of proofs - formal statements of mathematical reasoning. more...
The Bernoulli Family Tree: Deciphering History's Greatest Mathematical Family
Category: Math/Chaos Theory (general)
The Bernoulli family, through four generations in the 16th and 17th centuries, was one of the most prominent and important mathematical and scientific families. more...
Category: Physics (general)
Scientists in recent weeks have begun to pave the way toward using nanotechnology for very practical purpose: Keeping things from falling off walls. more...
What is Differential Geometry?: The Calculus of Continuous Manifolds
Category: Math
Differential Geometry is a form of advanced mathematics which deals with the properties of continuous manifolds in multiple dimensions, using basic tools of calculus. more...
Squaring the Circle: One of the Oldest and Most Difficult Problems in Geometry
Category: Math/Chaos Theory (general)
The problem of finding a square which has the exact same area as a given circle is a problem which for centuries eluded some of history's greatest mathematicians. more...
Hyperbolic Geometry: The Geometry of Hyperparallelism
Category: Math/Chaos Theory (general)
One of the most common families of non-Euclidean geometry is hyperbolic geometry - a self-consistent geometry of "obtuse" curvature. more...
Numerical Integration: Finding the Area Under a Curve
Category: Math/Chaos Theory (general)
Numerical integration is a form of calculus which seeks to find the area under either a simple or a complex curve - more difficult than it sounds. more...
The Prisoner's Dilemma: A Hypothetical Game Theory Application
Category: Math/Chaos Theory (general)
Developed by Merrill Flood and Melvin Dresher at RAND in 1950, the case of the "Prisoner's Dilemma" has become a classic example of a game theory conundrum. more...
What is Game Theory?: The Mathematics of Strategy and Competition
Category: Math/Chaos Theory (general)
Game theory is a branch of applied mathematics which relates to strategy and prediction of behavior; a complicated science with a diverse range of applications. more...
The Importance of Significant Digits: Understanding the Limitations of Measurement and Mathematics
Category: Math/Chaos Theory (general)
In math and science, it can often be far too easy to exaggerate a number's accuracy, leading to mathematical errors. For these reasons, significant digits are important. more...
The Unit Circle: A Deceptively Simple Trigonometric Tool
Category: Math/Chaos Theory (general)
The so-called unit circle is one of the key tools of trigonometry. At its simplest, it is merely a circle which has a center point at (0,0) and a radius of one. more...
Basic Equations for Lines: Essential Tools of Linear Algebra
Category: Math/Chaos Theory (general)
One of the fundamental tools which should be remembered from a basic algebra class is how to mathematically describe any line on a graph. more...
Combinatorics: Discrete Operations within Set Theory
Category: Math/Chaos Theory (general)
Combinatorics refers to fundamental operations which may be carried out amongst various mathematical sets, offering a tremendous number of potential uses. more...
Modular Arithmetic: An Intuitively Repetitive Methodology to Mathematics
Category: Math/Chaos Theory (general)
In what way are clocks, musical scales, sine waves and long division related? They all rely on a form of mathematics known as modular arithmetic. more...
Basic Trigonometric Principles: Sines, Cosines, Tangents, and their Inverses
Category: Math/Chaos Theory (general)
The most basic trigonometric operations, finding sines, cosines, and tangents, may seem rather tedious and without purpose at first, but these are essential to calculus. more...
Forms of Mathematical Symmetry: Various Uses and Types of Symmetrical Operations
Category: Math/Chaos Theory (general)
In Mathematics and many of applications thereof, there is great importance placed on the idea of symmetry and the methods of transforming one thing into another. more...
The Nixon Presidency: One of the Most Controversial Politicians in American History
Category: American History (general)
Richard Nixon is surely best remembered for the Watergate scandal and subsequent resignation. There is certainly much more to his time in office than that, however. more...
The Rise of Richard M. Nixon: The Rapid Ascension of a Great California Politician
Category: American History (general)
Richard Milhous Nixon showed signs of great political potential very early on in life, and certainly would live up to that potential in later life. more...
The Rise of Lyndon Johnson: Texas Educator, Congressman, Senator, and Vice President
Category: American History (general)
Lyndon Baines Johnson, who would later become the 36th President of the United States, began his career as a teacher in Texas before moving on to politics. more...
The Rise of John F. Kennedy: The Unhealthy Early Life of the Youngest Elected President
Category: American History (general)
John F. Kennedy, born to a life of privilege, suffered from great medical problems through much of his life, but certainly found success nonetheless. more...
Eisenhower's Military Career: The Gradual Rise of America's 34th President
Category: American History (general)
Dwight David Eisenhower, prior to becoming President of the United States, served the U.S. Army for more than 40 years, achieving the highest rank of any officer. more...
Harry Truman's First Term: The Rising Popularity of One of America's Great Presidents
Category: American History (general)
Harry S Truman, remembered today as a generally great President, made a number of very memorable decisions during his first term, including that to use "the bomb." more...
The Franklin Roosevelt Presidency: A Record Four Terms for the President of the New Deal
Category: American History (general)
Franklin Delano Roosevelt is surely one of the most important political figures of the twentieth century, whether one agrees with his policies or not. more...
The Presidency of Herbert Hoover: A Progressive Presidency Mired by a Great Depression
Category: American History (general)
Beginning in the very first year of his Presidency, the Great Depression became the most memorable feature of Herbert Hoover's Presidency. more...
The Rise of Calvin Coolidge: From State Politician to United States Vice President
Category: American History (general)
Soft-spoken Calvin Coolidge was an unlikely choice for Vice President of the United States, but in 1920, he made it to this position nonetheless. more...
The Rise of Herbert Hoover: The Globetrotting Tours of the Engineer/President
Category: American History (general)
Herbert Hoover, perhaps best known as having presided over the Great Depression, lived a very interesting, exciting and undeniably impressive life before the Presidency. more...
The Rise of Warren G. Harding: An Ohio Newspaper Man Becomes President
Category: American History (general)
Warren G. Harding, a traditional conservative, engineered a prodigious rise from obscure local newspaper man to national politician in a very short period of time. more...
The Life of Leonard Euler: One of the Greatest Geniuses in Mathematical History
Category: Math/Chaos Theory (general)
Leonard Euler left his indelible mark on almost every area of mathematics, publishing hundreds upon hundreds of mathematical papers and volumes throughout his career. more...
President Wilson's Second Term: Four Years dominated by the First World War
Category: American History (general)
Woodrow Wilson had no choice but to send America to war in 1917, though he did so in hopes that he could perhaps prevent all such wars in the world's future. more...
The Rise of Woodrow Wilson: America's First and Only PhD President
Category: American History (general)
Despite a late start in terms of education, Woodrow Wilson nevertheless spent much of his life before the Presidency as one of America's great scholars. more...
The Presidency of William Taft: The Heir to the Progressive Throne and Republican Alienation
Category: American History (general)
Theodore Roosevelt's plan to place William Taft into the Presidency as a hand-picked successor did not turn out as well as he had hoped, as Taft had a mind of his own. more...
A Survey of the Fourth Dimension: Book Review: Shadows of Reality by Tony Robbin
Category: Math Books
Treading a fine line between math, art and science, this capable, entertaining, and colorful book challenges the reader to begin to comprehend a fourth dimension. more...
Roosevelt's Post Presidency: Theodore's Split with the Republican Party
Category: American History (general)
Despite having his hand-picked successor in office, Theodore Roosevelt's life after the Presidency was dominated in part by his opposition to his own political party. more...
The Early Years of Teddy Roosevelt: The Rise of a New York Politician and Badlands Cowboy
Category: American History (general)
Theodore Roosevelt, prior to becoming America's 26th President, lived an exciting life of politics, civil service, academics, and frontiersman. more...
The Rise of William McKinley: From the Civil War to Congressman and Governor
Category: American History (general)
William McKinley, the Ohioan who would later become President, began his life in politics early, and lived much of his life in service to his country. more...
The Rise of Benjamin Harrison: Civil War General, Indiana Senator, President of the United States
Category: American History (general)
Benjamin Harrison, grandson of President William Henry Harrison, climbed quickly up the political ladder, from local politics to national recognition. more...
President Cleveland's First Term: A Mixed Agenda of Reform and Passive Legislation
Category: American History (general)
Grover Cleveland's first term as President of the United States saw him attempting to reform the Federal Government, though he did little legistlating. more...
Chester A. Arthur in Office: A Stalwart Republican-Turned Civil Service Reformer
Category: American History (general)
Chester A. Arthur, 21st President of the United States, proved himself to be far more independent and above reproach than his opponents could have anticipated. more...
The Slow Death of James Garfield: Shot by a Stalwart, though Murdered by His Doctors
Category: American History (general)
Though his assassine was convicted of his murder, the true blame for the death of James Garfield has been shown to rest, in part, on his doctors themselves. more...
The Art of Charles Willson Peale: One of America’s Most Beloved Portrait Artists
Category: 18th Century Art
Charles Willson Peale painted some of the most memorable portraits in American history during the period surrounding the revolution, and spawned a family of artists. more...
The Controversial Election of 1876: Choosing a President by way of Congressional Compromise
Category: American History (general)
Though Rutherford B. Hayes trailed in both popular and electoral votes, a congressional compromise named him President on one of the most controversial elections in Ameri more...
The Circle of Willis: The Brain’s Major Arterial Formation
Category: Cardiovascular System
The Circle of Willis is a vital formation of arteries at the base of the brain which supplies all thought processes with the necessary fuel. more...
The Physiology of Skin: The Human Body’s First Line of Defense
Category: Cells/Tissues/Membranes
Human skin is a highly complex, highly important organ, serving many different functions within the body and being absolutely essential for human life as we know it. more...
The Parathyroid Glands: The Function and Necessity of the Smallest Endocrine Glands
Category: Anatomy & Physiology (general)
The parathyroid gland is an essential part of the human anatomy, regulating the crucial calcium supply to the entire body. more...
Deadly Neurotoxins: How Natural Chemicals Affect the Human Physiology
Category: Toxicology
Certain snakes, scorpions, frogs and fish are well known for secreting deadly substances known as neurotoxins. What do these chemical actually do to humans? more...
The Presidency of Andrew Johnson: The Battle with Congress for Southern Reconstruction
Category: American History (general)
New President Andrew Johnson was thrust into power and forced to find a way to unite a sharply divided country. The result, however, was his political downfall. more...
The Presidency of Abraham Lincoln: Governing the Nation During the Civil War
Category: American History (general)
Abraham Lincoln's terms as President were dominated, of course, by the American Civil War. It is here that he earned his title as one of America's greatest Presidents. more...
The Local Politics of Lincoln: A Future President and the Rise of Republicanism
Category: American History (general)
Abraham Lincoln's early political careers shows tremendous potential, as his intelligence and devotion to his beliefs carried him up the political ladder. more...
The Bertillonage System: Determining Identity by Careful Measurement of Anatomy
Category: Law, Crime & Justice (general)
The Bertillonage System, developed toward the end of the 19th century, was a very precise means of determining identity based on measurement, though it did not last long. more...
The Presidency of James Buchanan: A Failed Presidency and the Beginnings of Civil War
Category: American History (general)
Despite a successful political road leading up to becoming President, Buchanan was forced to face some of the worst crises America has ever seen; a ask at which he failed more...
The Seven Seas of Antiquity: Deciphering an Ancient Mystery
Category: Ancient History (general)
What do sailors mean when they say the've "sailed the seven seas?" How many seas are there in the world, and why would they pick just seven? more...
The Politics of Franklin Pierce: Handsom Frank and the Road to Civil War
Category: American History (general)
Franklin Pierce presided over some of the most crucial years in American history - the years which many see as those which may have led America directly toward a Civil Wa more...
The Politics of Zachary Taylor: Another War Hero in the White House
Category: American History (general)
Called "Old Rough and Ready," Zachary Taylor earned his fame in the Mexican-American War, and was elected President solely on this experience. more...
Solving the Aroostook War: The Webster-Ashburton Treaty and the Lumberjack War
Category: American History (general)
The border between Maine and New Brunswick was a hot-button issue during the first half of the nineteenth century between England and the U.S. more...
The Ascent of John Tyler: The Tumultuous Politics of America's 10th President
Category: American History (general)
John Tyler, though a Jeffersonian Republican and ardent Democrat, became the second Whig President after William Henry Harrison's death. more...
President William Henry Harrison: The Short-Lived Ninth President of the United States
Category: American History (general)
William Henry Harrison did not last long as President, but prior to that he was a war hero and one of America's most prolific politicians. more...
The Politics of Martin Van Buren: An Important Voice in Early American Party Organization
Category: American History (general)
Martin Van Buren, as President of the United States, played a key role in establishing the Jacksonian Democratic party and in creating the second American party system. more...
Andrew Jackson's Early Politics: America's First Frontier President
Category: American History (general)
Andrew Jackson was surely one of the most controversial of all of America's first Presidents. From a war hero to a frontier lawyer to President, his story is fascinating more...
The Volcano at Paricutin: The Story of Mexico’s Newest Eruption
Category: Volcanology
In 1943, scientists were stunned to be able to witness the birth of a brand new volcano in Mexico, arising out of nowhere in the middle of a field. more...
Christmas Island: Australia’s Little-Known Island Paradise
Category: Geography (general)
Founded by the East India company in 1643, Australia's Christmas Island possesses quite a rich and diverse history all its own. more...
The Presidency of John Quincy: The Many Difficulties of America's Most Intelligent President
Category: American History (general)
From the beginning, John Quincy Adams faced an uphill battle as President. He was never quite able to prove wrong those who viewed his Presidency as being "illegitimate. more...
The Politics of James Madison: The Fourth President's Commitment to His Predecessor's Legacy
Category: American History (general)
James Madison a member of the Democratic-Republican party, though his war-time presidency demonstrated a certain degree of bipartisanship. more...
The Panic of 1819: The Downturn of America's First Economic Cycle
Category: American History (general)
Today, Americans have grown familiar with the ebb and flow of the economy. The panic of 1819 can be pointed to as America's formal introduction into this endless cycle. more...
Introduction to Topology: The Mathematics of Geometrical Space
Category: Math/Chaos Theory (general)
Topology is the study of the mathematics of various shapes; it defines their features and the possible manipulations they can undergo while retaining their shape. more...
Peter Galison's Take on Relativity: A Review of "Einstein's Clocks, Poincare's Maps"
Category: Science Books
Peter Galison's remarkable work on science at the end of the 19th century gives an entirely new and interesting take on the motives and methods behind relativity theory. more...
The Presidency of John Adams: The Controversial Federalist Polices of the Second President
Category: American History (general)
While John Adams is today remembered as having been a great President, his status was once mired by his association with the controversial policies of other Federalists. more...
The Politics of George Washington: The Fickle Ideology of America's First President
Category: American History (general)
George Washington, the military commander and war hero, was a unanimous choice to be the first President of the United States, but where were his political allegiances? more...
Traveling at the Speed of Light: Albert Einstein's Special Relativity and Cosmic Speed Limits
Category: Physics (general)
Embedded within the special theory of relativity are four fundamental reasons that Einstein provided to explain why nothing can ever travel at or beyond light speed. more...
The Mausoleum of Halicarnassus: The Oft-Forgotten Wonder of the Ancient World
Category: Ancient History (general)
One of the grandest tombs in all of history, the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus was well deserved of its place as one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. more...
The Mathematics of Black Holes: Solving the "Schwarzschild Radius Equation"
Category: Math/Chaos Theory (general)
How massive does an object have to be in order to be transformed into a black hole? There is a very simple way to find this out using a standard algebraic equation. more...
Solving Space and Time Dilation: A Famous Equation of Einstein's Special Relativity
Category: Math/Chaos Theory (general)
Special Relativity states that as an object travels closer to the speed of light, both time and space will lose their meaning. The math for this is surprisingly simple. more...
Important Mathematical Constants: A Guide to the Most Important Intransigent Numbers
Category: Math
Mathematics is absolutely full of mathematical constants - numbers that represent something fundamental, and which never have, and never will change in value. more...
The Mathematics of Ancient Egypt: The Impressive Numerical History of an Ancient Civilization
Category: Math
The ancient Egyptians possessed one of the earliest forms of mathematics, inspiring all mathematcal traditions that would follow in history. more...
The Pharos of Alexandria: The Long-Lasting Wonder of the Ancient World
Category: Ancient History (general)
Apart from the great pyramids, the Lighthouse at Alexandria was the longest-lasting of all the ancient wonders, a grand beacon at the Alexandrian harbor. more...
Solving Knot Theory Problems: Various Mathematical Knots and Applications
Category: Math
While it may seem like a trivial form of mathematics, knot theory has developed a highly efficient formalism over the years as it has gained recognition. more...
The Temple of Artemis at Ephasus: The Dramatic Story of one of the Wonders of the Ancient World
Category: Ancient History (general)
Finally completed after four attempts, the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus is one of the most storied of all the seven ancient wonders. more...
Introduction to Set Theory: Establishing the Relationships Between Groups of Numbers
Category: Math/Chaos Theory (general)
Set theory, as first developed by Georg Cantor in 1874, has redefined mathematics and allowed the development of any number of numerological breakthroughs. more...
Sedimentary Rocks: Rock Formations Laid Down Over Vast Amounts of TIme
Category: Minerals
Sedimentary rock formations are those which are formed by layer upon layer of sediment being laid down by natural forces. It is the stone in which history is hidden. more...
Igneous Rocks: Important Mineral Bi-Products of Earth's Plate Techtonics
Category: Minerals
Igneous rocks are formed from lava (or magma), though they are not easily definable, as they exist in over seven hundred varieties. more...
The Production of Heavy Elements: The Collision of Geology and Physics in Stars and Supernovae
Category: Geology/Ecology (general)
The fact that Earth is a rocky planet is a large reason it is capable of supporting life. The heavy elements necessary for this were created in stars and supernovae. more...
The Twenty-One Gun Salute: Practical Origins of a Rarely Understood Modern Ceremony
Category: American History (general)
Originating as a method for warriors to display courtesy and respect, the 21 gun salute has its very practical origins very firmly rooted in the middle ages. more...
Copper Pipe Fitting Options: The Diversity of Fitting Types for All Budgets and Experience Levels
Category: Home Plumbing
To many, the most difficult part of working with copper pipe is in making the many needed connections. There are, however, many options to make life much easier. more...
Euclid's First Axiom: A Self-Evident, Yet Important Statement concerning Straight Lines
Category: Math
Euclid's first axiom, concerning points and straight lines, contains hidden depth that one might miss upon a cursory glance, and which is important to his geometry. more...
The Basics of Knot Theory: A Mathematical Method of Deciphering Loops, Tangles and Braids
Category: Math
Mathematicians are often known for their creativity; their unique ability to make sense of any worldly phenomenon using numbers. Knot theory is a perfect example of this. more...
Eustace the Monk: The Dramatic Life of a Medieval French Adventurer
Category: Medieval History (general)
In the early 13th century, the most feared man to sail the waters of the English channel was a former monk named Eustace - a talented and storied adventurer. more...
The Multiple Body Problem: When the Theory of Gravity Collides with Chaos Theory
Category: Math/Chaos Theory (general)
The n-body problem - which defines the gravitational attraction of multiple bodies - has plagued mathematicians and physicists for more than a century. more...
Category: Science Books
A fascinating book by Peter D. Ward and Donald Brownlee which defies the myths of popular culture by explaining, scientifically, why Earth may be unique after all. more...
Chaos Applications in Society: The Many and Various Uses of the Theory
Category: Chaos Theory
While chaos theory inherently possess very clear and obvious correlation to the physical world in the modeling of motion and turbulent systems, other uses exist as well. more...
Black-Body Radiation: The Ultraviolet Catastrophe and Fall of Classical Physics
Category: Physics History
In the final years of the nineteenth century, a new problem came to light which threatened to question the very nature of physical theories since the time of Newton. more...
Examples of Mathematical Fractals: A Few Non-Euclidean Figures that Display Continuous Principles
Category: Math/Chaos Theory (general)
Clever mathematicians over the years have devised some interesting and visually stunning examples of fractal figures which help them to better understand this concept. more...
A Definition of Fractal Geometry: The Mathematics of Self-Similarity and Infinite Shape
Category: Math/Chaos Theory (general)
One of the interesting developments of modern mathematics is the exploration of new forms of geometry which do not adhere to "standard" definitions. more...
'The Origins of the Future' Review: Ten (physics) Questions for the Next Ten Years
Category: Science/Tech Books (general)
The latest book by notable science writer John Gribbin explores the frontiers of scientific research toward the end of the first decade of the twentieth century. more...
Choosing the Right Nuts and Bolts: Understanding Hardware Differences that Tend to Cause Confusion
Category: Home Renovation/Repair (general)
It is easy to head to the hardware store looking for a specific nut or bolt and not know exactly what it is that is needed. In such cases, it's best to have more info. more...
Properties of Fermions and Bosons: The Gray Area within Particle Classification
Category: Atomic/Molecular/Optical Physics
Fermion and Boson classifications are not entirely set in stone. While individual particles are either one or the other, systems of particles can cause the laws to fail. more...
The English War of Jenkins' Ear: The War Against Spain Over a Single Severed Ear
Category: Georgian/Victorian Britain
The War of Jenkins Ear was fought in Europe between 1739 and 1748; it was started by a single act of barbarism - the severing of an ear by the Spanish Coast Guard. more...
Scientific Classification of Lava: Categorizing the Various Forms of this Volcanic Liquid
Category: Volcanology
Lava is a very interesting substance, but most people don't realize that it can come in many very interesting varieties, differing in chemistry and in temperature. more...
Principles of Particle Detection: How Exactly do Particle Accelerators Operate?
Category: Particle Physics
The scientific explanation of what exactly is happening within a particle accelerator experiment is not that complicated. It relies on just a couple fundamental laws. more...
Metal Pipes Used in Plumbing: A Brief Overview of the Various Types of Plumbing Applications
Category: Home Plumbing
To some, it may seem that the variety of different metalic pipes used in plumbing is somewhat unnecessary. They all do serve important and distinct puprposes, though. more...
Early Particle Accelerators: A History ol Deciphering the Reality of the Subatomic World
Category: Physics History
The history of subatomic research is truly interesting - from the early laboratory experiments to capturing cosmic rays to the glory of modern accelerators. more...
The Election of 1960: One of the Closest and Most Dramatic in United States History
Category: Modern US History
Few presidential elections have been quite as close, as dramatic or as controversial as the 1960 election between Richard Nixon and John F. Kennedy turned out to be. more...
Truman's Numbers Hit a New Low: How Truman Found Himself Facing the Lowest Approval Ratings Ever
Category: Modern US History
President Truman, now considered by many to have been a great President, was dogged throughout his time in office by low approval ratings and tough decisions. more...
Japanese Attacks on American Soil: Attempted Bombings of the U.S. During World War II
Category: WW II History
Throughout the course of the war in the Pacific during WWII, the Japanese tried several times to attack the American mainland, but never with any amount of success. more...
Various Thread Types of Plumbing: A Guide to Understanding the Many Styles of Fittings
Category: Home Plumbing
There are very few elements of plumbing that confuse the average DIYer more than understanding the many types of threads and fittings and how they all fit together. more...
Anti-Particles and Anti-Matter: How Every Particle Possesses an “Equal but Opposite” Partner
Category: Particle Physics
The discovery of the positron paved the way for further realization that every particle known must also have an "anti" particle. more...
The Worst Penal Colonies Worldwide: Labor Camps Where Nations Sent their of their Criminals
Category: W European History (general)
Penal colonies were places where many civilized societies prior to the nineteenth century would send criminals in order for punishment and to use them for cheap labor. more...
Charles I and Personal Rule: The Events Preceding the English Civil War of the 1640s
Category: UK/Irish History (general)
It was the reign of King Charles I which was perhaps more than anything else responsible for initiating the conflict which led, ultimately, to the English Civil War. more...
The Original Potemkin Villages: A Russian Minister’s Attempt to Deceive Catherine the Great
Category: Russian/Ukrainian/Belarus History
In 1787, Russian Minister Grigori Potemkin set about to prove the value of the Crimean lands to Catherine the Great through an elaborately deceitful plan. more...
Radioactivity and Alpha Particles: The Radioactive Decay Governed by the Strong Nuclear Force
Category: Atomic/Molecular/Optical Physics
Alpha particles are emitted from a radioactive substance by way of quantum tunneling and is governed by a statistical look at the strong nuclear force. more...
Wilhelm I and the Potsdam Giants: The King of Prussia and his Love of Tall Men
Category: Military History (general)
King Frederick Wilhelm I of Prussia was a decent king in many regards, but he is perhaps best known for raising up a large army of giant men. more...
The Discovery of the Neutron: James Chadwick's Remarkable Experiment
Category: Atomic/Molecular/Optical Physics
In 1932, James Chadwick proved that the atomic nucleus contained a neutral particle which had been proposed more than a decade earlier by Ernest Rutherford. more...
Rutherford and the Atomic Nucleus: The Discovery of the Shape and Composition of the Atom
Category: Atomic/Molecular/Optical Physics
New Zealander Ernest Rutherford made waves in the scientific community in the first couple decades of the twentieth century with his work on the atomic structure. more...
The Discovery of the Electron: J.J. Thompson and the First Subatomic Particle
Category: Atomic/Molecular/Optical Physics
The first discovery of a subatomic particle would come in 1897, when J.J. Thompson first discovered evidence for the existence of the electron. more...
Etymology of a Sarcophagus: The Linguistic Connection between Flies and Coffins
Category: Language Study (general)
Discovering interesting connections between seemingly unrelated words can be one of the great joys of the subject of etymology. The word Sarcophagus is a great example. more...
The Scale of Atoms: Gaining a Perspective of Atomic Sizes
Category: Atomic/Molecular/Optical Physics
Much of the difficulty scientists had in discovering, and then proving the existence of, atoms, is their size. Something so small had never before been defined. more...
Brownian Motion and Atomic Theory: How a Botanist Helped to Prove that Atoms Exist
Category: Atomic/Molecular/Optical Physics
Following up on the work of John Dalton, Robert Brown and, later, Albert Einstein, would finally help to convince the world of the existence of atoms. more...
An Explanation of Pi: The Number Which Seeks to Define the Universe
Category: Math
The number pi has intrigued great thinkers for millenia. Only recently have mathematicians and scientists been able to truly understand how it relates to nature. more...
The Chimera, Then and Now: The Influence of Greek Mythology on Popular Culture
Category: Greek History
One finds it truly difficult to escape references to ancient Greek myths in modern popular culture. The Chimera is an interesting example of this phenomenon. more...
Stoicism and Greek Philosophy: Zeno of Citium's Philosophical Revolution
Category: Philosophy (general)
Stoicism was an important early philosophy espoused in Ancient Greece during the golden age of philosophy during the third and second centuries B.C. more...
Quantum Cryptography: The Frontiers of Secrecy
Category: Physics (general)
In the all-important world of code making and breaking, perhaps the greatest hope comes from the world of quantum physics. more...
Defining Quantum Mechanics: The Physics of the Smallest Things in the Universe
Category: Atomic/Molecular/Optical Physics
Quantum physics is recognized by many as one of the most difficult concepts in science. While this is surely true, it is not entirely beyond the grasp of the layman. more...
Benford's Law of Leading Digits: A Statistical and Mathematical Analysis of First-Digits
Category: Math
Benford's law is an interesting examination of the phenomenon wherein the leading digits of all numerical data seems to follow an illogical statistical pattern. more...
The Legacy of General Relativity: Einstein’s Greatest Theory and its Effect on the Scientific World
Category: Physics (general)
When Einstein published his General Theory of Relativity, surely even he could not be fully aware of the profound effect it would have on the scientific community. more...
The Number Zero: The History of Formulating Nothing
Category: Math
As far as numbers go, zero has throughout history caused mathematicians no end of grief and discomfort, yet it remains an important chapter in mathematical history. more...
Gravity and General Relativity: Einstein's Revolutionary Theory of Curved Spacetime
Category: Physics (general)
In essence, Einstein's General Theory of Relativity was an entirely new theory of gravity, replacing the centuries-old theories of Isaac Newton. more...
The British Bill of Attainder: A British Law Enabling Conviction Without Trial
Category: Law
Beginning in the fourteenth century and lasting to the nineteenth, there was a law in England that enabled nobles and royalty to punish citizens without trial. more...
Euclidean v Non-Euclidean Geometry: The Mathematics Describing the Shape of the Universe
Category: Math
While most people are far more familiar with the basic principles of Euclidean geometry, scientists have come to discover that the shape of our universe is non-Euclidean. more...
The Candidacy of William Wirt: The Ironic Candidate of the Free Mason Party in 1832
Category: American History (general)
Author, Lawyer, Attorney General and Presidential Candidate William Wirt was an important figure in American Politics, and an ironic choice for presidential candidate. more...
General Charles Lee: His Successes, Failures, and Treasons During the Revolutionary War
Category: Colonial America
Charles Lee is one of the more fascinating, eccentric, and forgotten characters to have taken part in the American Revolutionary War. more...
Relativity and Bending Light: Albert Einstein’s Most Famous Prediction of General Relativity
Category: Physics (general)
While many physicists would have believed it to be impossible, Albert Einstein's prediction that light could be bent by gravity acted to change the course of physics. more...
The Story of Typhoid Mary: A Human Incubator of a Dreaded Disease
Category: American History (general)
The story of Mary Malone - "Typhoid Mary" - Is the stuff legends are made of. In this case, however, the story of an Irish Cook who begins an epidemic, is entirely true. more...
The Many Forms of Déjà Vu: Possible Scientific Explanations for Precognitive Experience
Category: Psychology (general)
That eerie feeling of déjà vu is very common, though scientific explanation has far to go before it is able to fully explain this aspect of the human consciousness more...
The Equivalence Principle: Einstein's "Happiest Thought" and the General Theory of Relativity
Category: Physics (general)
When Albert Einstein first realized that gravitational mass and inertial mass were the same thing, the resulting thoughts led him to expanding the theory of relativity. more...
The Hindenburg Disaster: The Truth Behind History's Most Famous Zeppelin's Creation and Crash
Category: Aviation History
The crash of the Hindenburg in 1937 has been engrained into the human psyche for more than 60 years. Not all are fully aware of the true history of this disaster. more...
A History of Dentures: The Ancient Origins of Dental Hardware
Category: Ancient History (general)
The precursors to modern dentures have a surprisingly vast history, with the first evidence of them being used by humans dating back to about 6500 years ago. more...
The Basics of Nanotechnology: The Science of Manipulating Subatomic Objects
Category: Atomic/Molecular/Optical Physics
The word "nanotechnology" in itself can be intimidating to people who do not understand it. A brief explanation of this science helps to sort out some of these issues. more...
Nuclear Chain Reactions: How Atomic Weapons Really Work
Category: Physics (general)
Most people are aware of the destructive force held within an atomic weapon, but what are physical forces are conspiring in order to cause such a violent explosion? more...
The First Paper: The Papyrus of Ancient Egypt
Category: Egyptian History
Though the manufacturing of paper has changed considerably over the years, the papyrus invented by the Egyptians was not altogether dissimilar from modern paper. more...
Developing the Camera Obscura: Early Example of Photographic Technology: Ancestor of Modern Camera
Category: Photography (general)
It often shocks people to realize that the forerunners of modern cameras were not created even one or two hundred years ago. In reality, it's been nearly a millennium. more...
Time and Space Dilation: Einstein's Answer to the Problem with the Speed of Light
Category: Physics (general)
Albert Einstein developed his theories of time and space dilation to show the world exactly why the speed of light remained constant. In so doing, he changed everything. more...
A Cure for Yellow Fever: Selfless Medical Scientists and their Breakthroughs
Category: Diseases/Viruses
Under the guidance of Dr. Walter Reed, several brave men and women made the ultimate sacrifice to discover the cause of the dreaded yellow fever. more...
Alan Turing's Processing Machine: The Computer that Can Perform any Concievable Operation
Category: Computer Programming (general)
In 1936, Alan Turing devised a computing machine which could, in theory, rival even the most powerful computers of today. more...
Simultaneity and Relativity: Proof of The Flexibility of Time and Space
Category: Physics (general)
In striving to develop his theory of Special Relativity, Einstein was forced to prove that truly simultaneous events could never possibly be measured. more...
Uncle Sam: A Brief History of America's Greatest Symbol
Category: American History (general)
For almost two centuries, the image of Uncle Sam has been intimately associated with American Patriotism. But where did this symbol come from? more...
Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798: America's Quasi War with France, pt. 2 of 2
Category: American History (general)
As America entered into its undeclared war with France, decisions made by the Federalist leadership in Washington assured the eventual destruction of their own party. more...
The Speed of Light: How The Study of Electromagnetism Affected Science
Category: Physics (general)
Though light was finally accepted to exist in the form of waves in the 19th century, other problems awaited the immediate attention of physicists. more...
The Titles of Nobility Act: The Original Thirteenth Amendment
Category: American History (general)
Most people do not realize that the well-known thirteenth amendment - that which ended slavery in America - was not the first "Thirteenth" amendment proposed. more...
Galilean Relativity: So Many Trains, so Little Time
Category: Physics (general)
To fully understand the mysteries of Albert Einstein's Special Theory of Relativity, one must first understand the theory on which it was based: Galileo's theory. more...
Category: Language Study (general)
While it may surprise many, the definition for the word "set" actually takes up more space than any other word, according to the Oxford English Dictionary. more...
Rome's Third Servile War: One of the First Great Battles Against Slavery
Category: Roman History
In 73 B.C. Roman slaves, led by Spartacus, revolted, building an army and raging through the Italian countryside in one of the most important slave uprisings in history. more...
The Sieve of Eratosthenes: An Ancient Greek Method of Finding Primes
Category: Math
Throughout mathematical history, thinkers have attempted to come up with a great many methods by which to discover prime numbers. Eratosthenes' was perhaps the simplest. more...
Medved's Ten Big Lies: America’s “Cultural Crusader” Defends America from Falsehood
Category: American Affairs (general)
Through his daily radio show heard throughout the United States, Michael Medved has built a reputation of being one of talk radio's most intelligent and informed pundits. more...
Commutativity in Mathematics and Nature: The Importance of Commutative and Non-Commutative Processes
Category: Math/Chaos Theory (general)
In mathematics, commutativity is a long word describing a very simple concept. A commutative process is one which can be reversed with no change in result. more...
Chaos Theory and Water Droplets: New Attempts to Explore Mysteriously Chaotic Behaviors
Category: Chaos Theory
Researchers at MIT have been working to explore the always-difficult world of chaos theory by way of a rather simple experiment involving bouncing water droplets. more...
New Findings in Beauty and Mathematics: Scientists Take Strides to Discover the True Beauty of Math
Category: Math/Chaos Theory (general)
Mathematicians - like all scientists - are often on the lookout for a certain element of "beauty" in their formulas. But what does this beauty actually look like? And sh more...
Complex Numbers: The True Reality of Imaginary Mathematics
Category: Math/Chaos Theory (general)
Complex numbers are numbers which are combinations of any real number plus the imaginary number. While difficult to comprehend, imaginary numbers are quite real. more...
What are Irrational Numbers?: Real Numbers Which Cannot Be Fully Expressed as Fractions
Category: Math/Chaos Theory (general)
Irrational numbers, though of great importance in many branches of mathematics, are difficult concepts for the human mind to grasp, for they are real, yet infinite. more...
Category: Math/Chaos Theory (general)
Whereas in much of physics scientists tend to rely on differential equations to describe phenomena, certain physical theories find success by denying continuity. more...
The Rhind Papyrus: The Greatest Surviving Example of Egyptian Mathematics
Category: Math/Chaos Theory (general)
The Rhind Papyrus is perhaps the best known demonstration of the mathematics of ancient Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period. more...
The Poincare Conjecture: Determining the Universal Topology of Spheres
Category: Math
Discovered by French mathematician Henri Poincare in the first decade of the 20th century, the Poincare Conjecture is used to define spherical topology. more...
Spherical Geometry: Non-Euclidean Mathematics on the Surface of a Sphere
Category: Math/Chaos Theory (general)
While most people are familiar with foundational geometrical principles which are essentially "flat," non-Euclidean geometry plays an important role in many cases. more...
Lie Groups: Classifying Non-Euclidean Manifolds
Category: Math/Chaos Theory (general)
The term "lie group" (pronounced "lee") refers to certain classifications of manifolds - a highly technical, difficult form of mathematics, but one with great pragmatic more...
Mathematical Identities: Remembering Key Mathematical Principles
Category: Math/Chaos Theory (general)
Over the course of one's mathematical education, they inevitably are forced to memorize a great many mathematical identities, maybe without even realizing it. more...
The Nash Equilibrium: A Nobel Prize-Winning Addition to Game Theory
Category: Math/Chaos Theory (general)
Brought to the attention of the mathematical community by famed mathematician John Nash in 1951, the Nash Equilibrium is an important element of game theory. more...
The Infinite and the Infinitesimal: The Very Large and the Very Small
Category: Math/Chaos Theory (general)
To many it is surely surprising just how complicated the idea of "infinity" can truly be, for, oddly enough, it can exist both in various forms and in various "sizes." more...
The Basics of Venn Diagrams: An Important Tool in Set Theory and Beyond
Category: Math/Chaos Theory (general)
Created by British Philosopher John Venn in 1881, Venn diagrams have made their way into almost every facet of set-based thought, well beyond mathematics. more...
Discrete Mathematics: The Calculation of Finite Sets
Category: Math/Chaos Theory (general)
Discrete mathematics, most commonly finding applications in computer sciences, are used to define groups of numbers which are finite, or "countable." more...
What is an Algorithm?: Defining Endless Systems of Instructions
Category: Math/Chaos Theory (general)
Algorithms are rather obscure, difficult to define sets of instructions, whether logical or mathematical, which allow one to accomplish a given task. more...
Continuous Functions: A Central Focus of Mathematical Analysis
Category: Math
Out of the many principles necessary for understanding the mathematics of calculus, one of the most important (and deceptively simple), is that of continuity. more...
A History of the Fields Medal: The Mathematical Answer to the Nobel Prize
Category: Math/Chaos Theory (general)
When by his last will Alfred Nobel instituted the Nobel Prize in 1895 to recognize great human endeavors, he neglected to make allowance for achievements in mathematics. more...
The Value of the Abacus: Making Use of the Most Ancient Calculators
Category: Math/Chaos Theory (general)
Thousands of years prior to the invention of the mechanical and electronic calculator, mathematicians all over the world made use of abaci - a surprisingly helpful tool. more...
What is a Limit?: An Essential Tool in Calculus
Category: Math/Chaos Theory (general)
One of the first things that a student of calculus must learn upon delving into this intimidating mathematical subject, is how to find the limit of an equation. more...
The Comeback of Richard Nixon: From Historical Footnote to Presidential Candidate
Category: American History (general)
Richard Milhous Nixon, an impressive politician from California, left the Vice Presidency in 1960 in hopes of attaining the White House for himself. more...
Lyndon Johnson's Presidency: LBJ's Plan for a Great Society in America
Category: American History (general)
Taking over the Presidential reins after the tragic assassination of Kennedy, Lyndon Johnson attempted to continue Kennedy's policies, while adding in many of his own. more...
The Kennedy Presidency: The Short but Memorable Presidency of JFK
Category: American History (general)
John F. Kennedy's Presidency lasted just under three years, but in this time he was able to achieve several victories, both foreign and domestic. more...
The Eisenhower Presidency: The Two Terms of the First Cold War President
Category: American History (general)
Newly elected President Dwight David Eisenhower found himself facing a continuing war in Korea and the beginnings of what would become the Cold War. more...
Harry Truman's Second Term: The Declining Poll Numbers of the Korean War President
Category: American History (general)
Harry Truman, despite his current status as one of America's greatest Presidents, found his second term dogged by the lowest Presidential poll numbers ever recorded. more...
The Rise of Harry S Truman: A Missouri Farmer's Entry into Politics
Category: American History (general)
Harry Truman's rise to political power, first in Missouri and then nationally, was certainly unlikely. Despite the uphill battle, this man fought his way to success. more...
The Rise of Franklin Roosevelt: FDR's Priviledged Road to the White House
Category: American History (general)
Franklin Delano Roosevelt, America's 32nd President, was born to a life of luxury and success in New York, which was aided by his personal charisma and intelligence. more...
Hoover's Road to the White House: A Mining Engineer Becomes Successful Commerce Secretary
Category: American History (general)
Herbert Hoover's first foray into politics came when President Harding named him Commerce Secretary in 1920. It was from here that the road to the White House was paved. more...
The Presidency of Calvin Coolidge: An Attempt to Restore Confidence to the Struggling Office
Category: American History (general)
After the sudden death of Warren G. Harding, Calvin Coolidge became the unlikely 30th President of the United States, attempting to bring a nation back together. more...
The Warren G. Harding Presidency: The Rise and Fall of a Controversial President
Category: American History (general)
Warren G. Harding is generally remembered in a negative light, as one of the least effective Presidents in American History... but was he really so awful? more...
Euler's Mathematical Contributions: The Work of One of the Greatest Minds in Mathematical History
Category: Math/Chaos Theory (general)
Leonard Euler was surely the most prolific and important mathematician of the eighteenth century, and perhaps of all time, with accomplishments far too numerous to count. more...
Review of Smoot's Ear: Robert Tavernor Explores the History of Measurement
Category: History Books
In the 2007 book "Smoot's Ear: The Measure of Humanity," Robert Tavernor takes an interesting and novel approach to understanding how mankind measures things. more...
President Wilson's First Term: He Kept us Out of the War and Defined America's Economic Policies
Category: American History (general)
The first half of Woodrow Wilson's 8 years in office focused on Domestic policies such as the tariff, the money issue, and antitrust legislation, along with keeping Ameri more...
William Taft on the Supreme Court: A Former President's Lifelong Dream Comes True
Category: American History (general)
When President Harding appointed William Howard Taft to the Supreme Court in 1920, he helped him to fulfill a lifelong dream. more...
The Rise of William Howard Taft: A Young Man with High Judicial Asperations
Category: American History (general)
From the earliest times of his career in law, William Howard Taft dreamed of being on the Supreme Court, and his life in public service served served to get him there. more...
The Five Platonic Solids: A Universe Ruled by Geometry
Category: Math/Chaos Theory (general)
Demonstrating the often-overlapping sciences of mathematics, philosophy, physics, and theology, the platonic solids have historically been seen as fundamentally important more...
The Presidency of Teddy Roosevelt: The Youngest President Becomes One of the Greats
Category: American History (general)
Earning himself a place on Mt. Rushmore was not easy, but Theodore Roosevelt worked hard at the Presidency, focusing on getting things done and on initiating reform. more...
The Presidency of William McKinley: The Idol of Ohio and Five Successful Years in Office
Category: American History (general)
Before his assassination in 1901, William McKinley found a good deal of success in the office of the President, being the first incumbent since Ulysses S. Grant to win re more...
President Benjamin Harrison: The Single Term of America's Last Bearded President
Category: American History (general)
Benjamin Harrison's four years in the office of President has been largely forgotten in the century since. His legacy is mixed, despite a strong legislative agenda. more...
Grover Cleveland's Second Term: Return to Office after a Four Year Retirement
Category: American History (general)
Finally defeating Benjamin Harrison on his second attempt, Grover Cleveland returned to the White House, but times had changed. more...
The Rise of Grover Cleveland: From Lawyer, to Mayor, to Governor, to President in Three Years
Category: American History (general)
Grover Cleveland's path to the White House did not truly begin until elected Mayor of Buffalo, New York in 1881. Three years later, he would be President. more...
The Politics of Chester A. Arthur: A Stalwart Defender of the Spoils System in Government
Category: American History (general)
Chester A. Arthur, soon to be 21st President of the United States, was a loyal member of the stalwart faction of Republican Politics throughout his rise to the Vice-Presi more...
The Politics of James A. Garfield: From Preacher, to Teacher, to General, to President
Category: American History (general)
James A. Garfield worked very hard throughout his life, succeeding at many things, including his education, his military career, and, of course, politics. more...
The Rutherford B. Hayes Presidency: The Dark Horse Republican Who Ended Reconstruction
Category: American History (general)
Rutherford B. Hayes is not among the most well-known Presidents of the United States, but he played an important role in determining the shape of the union after the war. more...
The Rise of Rutherford B. Hayes: The Ohio Lawyer and War Hero Who Would be President
Category: American History (general)
Rutherford B. Hayes achieved the Presidency in part because his early life offered very little in the way of scandal. He was a capable lawyer and a wartime hero. more...
The Human Stomach: The Principle Organ of the Digestive System
Category: Digestive System
The stomach is a marvelous piece of biological engineering - exactly what is needed by the body to break down food with powerful acids while protecting the body. more...
The Many Purposes of Saliva: The Science and Physiology of Drool
Category: Digestive System
Saliva serves many purposes within the mouth, such as a digestive aid and acid neutralization, both of which are vital to the human physiology. more...
The Politics of Ulysses S. Grant: A Successful General Becomes an Unsuccessful President
Category: American History (general)
There has been much debate over the legacy of President Grant over the years, with some naming him among the worst, while others finding things to admire. more...
The Science of Hiccups: The Attempt to Find an Explanation for Singultus
Category: Anatomy & Physiology (general)
Science is still unsure exactly what causes hiccups as well as how to cure them. So what exactly have they learned in their studies? more...
The Rise of Andrew Johnson: The Growth of Abraham Lincoln's Embattled Successor
Category: American History (general)
Andrew Johnson, who took over the Presidency after Lincoln's assassination, was born in poverty, but worked his way up quickly up the political ladder. more...
The Rise of Abraham Lincoln: America's Sixteenth President Arrives in Washington
Category: American History (general)
Beginning in 1847, Abraham Lincoln entered national politics, and quickly made a name for himself for his personal convictions and blunt honesty. more...
Free Radicals and Aging: A Scientific Investigation of Senescence
Category: Microbiology (general)
Science has many theories regarding why people get older and eventually die, though it is surprising to learn how much mystery remains in this exploration. more...
The Rise of Allergies: The Increase of Hypersensitivity Despite Modern Medicine
Category: Immunology
Studies have shown that even as time passes and medical technology advances, cases of allergies continue to rise. What is the cause of this? more...
The Rise of James Buchanan: The Making of the President Who Instigated the Civil War
Category: American History (general)
The quick growth and early success of James Buchanan played an infamous role in the growth of the United States during the first half of the nineteenth century. more...
Breakthroughs in Musical Geometry: The Visualization and Future of Musical Science
Category: Math/Chaos Theory (general)
Researchers in American Universities have been developing precise mathematical formulations used to describe what is currently known about music, and to further human kno more...
The Politics of Millard Fillmore: The Last of the Whig Presidents in America
Category: American History (general)
Millard Filmore, 13th President of the United States, is one of the most overlooked characters in American history - but is this oversight jusified? more...
The Politics of James K. Polk: One of the Most Successful Presidents in American History
Category: American History (general)
James K. Polk entered the office of the President as heir apparent to Andrew Jackson's Democratic party after the miserable failure of the Whigs under William Henry Harri more...
The Presidency of John Tyler: The President Who Helped Destroy the Whigs
Category: American History (general)
John Tyler, though elected Vice President as a Whig candidate, did much after ascending to the highest office, to destroy the Whig agenda in Washington. more...
The Curse of Tecumseh: The Deadly Legacy Left by William Henry Harrison
Category: American History (general)
Before his death, American legend says that Indian Chief Tecumseh issued a curse upon the American Presidency - that every twenty years a President would die in office. more...
The Panic of 1837: The Onset of America's First Depression
Category: American History (general)
There are many factors which contributed to the financial panic which took place during the Presidency of Martin Van Buren, all of which led to an economic depression. more...
The Presidency of Andrew Jackson: The Democratic Politics of Old Hickory
Category: American History (general)
Andrew Jackson was a polarizing figure in the history of American politics. He was a strong and capable leader with a violent tempor and a very clear vision of America, more...
The Science of Quicksand: Unraveling a Dangerous and Dirty Mystery
Category: Geology/Ecology (general)
It's often seen in adventure movies and written about in books, but what is quicksand, really? more...
The Purpose of Calculus: The History and Intent of a New Mathematics
Category: Math
Created nearly simultaneously by two mathematical geniuses, calculus to many is little more than a pointless numerical exercise. It's uses, though, are vast in number. more...
Formulating Euler's Identity: An Exploration of One of History's Greatest Equations
Category: Math/Chaos Theory (general)
The equation which has become known as "Euler's Identity" has been rated by mathematicians and laymen alike to be one of the most beautiful expressions in the history of more...
John Quincy Adams' Early Years: The Political Shaping of America's Sixth President
Category: American History (general)
John Quincy Adams, elected President in 1824 as a Democratic-Republican, was a member, during his long political career, of no less than five political parties. more...
Fermat's Last Theorem: Solving One of the Most Perplexing Problems in Math History
Category: Math
Until it was finally solved in 1993, Fermat's final theorem - an extension of the Pythagorean theorem - befuddled mathematicians for more than four centuries. more...
The Politics of James Monroe: Ideological Leanings During the "Era of Good Feelings"
Category: American History (general)
Apart from George Washington, James Monroe is the closest America has ever come to having a unanimously elected president, leading the country during peaceful times. more...
The Mobius Strip: Topology of a Mathematical Paradox
Category: Math/Chaos Theory (general)
Making the mathematical wonder known as a Mobius strip is surprisingly easy, though understanding it on a mathematical level adds a whole new complexity. more...
The Politics of Thomas Jefferson: The Ideology of America's Third President
Category: American History (general)
America's third president was a follower of the European philosophy of enlightenment, and a staunch believer in states rights. more...
The Early Politics of John Adams: America's First Politician-President
Category: American History (general)
John Adams, member of the Federalist party, was a true American patriot, though once in office the politics of his party kept him from a second term. more...
The Twin Paradox: One of Special Relativity's Most Important Thought Experiments
Category: Physics (general)
In Special Relativity, will a moving person age slower than a stationary one? This is a question which has been tossed around for years, with very interesting results. more...
The Pyramid of Giza: The Only Remaining Ancient Wonder
Category: Ancient History (general)
The Great Pyramid of Giza remains to this day both intact and in surprisingly good shape. The reason for this, clearly, is its intrinsic structural stability. more...
The Massive Colossus of Rhodes: A Welcoming Giant and Wonder of the Ancient World
Category: Ancient History (general)
The Colossus of Rhodes was a statue of the Greek god Helios which stood beside the harbor at Rhodes, welcoming locals and travelers alike. more...
What is a Black Hole?: The Origin and Present Perspective on these Cosmic Wonders
Category: Physics (general)
The phenomena known as black holes are some of the most studied elements of the universe, yet they still retain a fascinating amount of mystery. more...
Numerological Taxonomy: The Modern Classification of Numbers
Category: Math
Mathematicians have many clever ways of dividing various numbers in to different categories, or "sets." Some may be familiar to most, while others are surely not. more...
Ancient Babylonian Mathematics: An Impressive Early Form of Number Usage
Category: Math/Chaos Theory (general)
The mathematicians of ancient Babylonia were surprisingly sophisticated for their time, coming up with some very clever forms of mathematics. more...
The Temple of Zeus at Olympia: An Ancient Wonder and Forerunner to Modern Architecture
Category: Ancient History (general)
The Temple of Zeus at Olympia was one of the well known wonders of the ancient world, and has become the basis for modern structures such as the Lincoln Memorial. more...
Hanging Gardens of Babylon: The Most Questionable Wonder of the Ancient World
Category: Ancient History (general)
The hanging gardens of Babylon is one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, but there are actually questions as to whether or not it even existed. more...
Combining Fractals and Chaos: The Intersection of Two Forms of Modern Mathematics
Category: Chaos Theory
Fractal geometry and chaos theory are two very interconnected forms of mathematics. It is difficult to fully understand one without also knowing the other. more...
Degrees of Infinity: The Inequality of Endless Sets
Category: Math/Chaos Theory (general)
Mathematical set theory has led to some interesting conclusions over the years. One of the most interesting is the idea that not all infinities are equal. more...
Euclid's Fifth Axiom: The Infamous Parallel Postulate and Its Legacy
Category: Math
Very few seemingly incontrovertible mathematical statements throughout history have wreaked quite as much havoc as Euclid's controversial fifth axiom. more...
Metamorphic Rock: Nature's Ever-Changing Mineral Formations
Category: Minerals
Metamorphic rocks are those which change type over time and under certain conditions. They are proof that rock may not be as stable and permanent as it seems. more...
Euclid's Fourth Axiom: The Postulate Stating the Congruence of Right Angles
Category: Math
Euclid's fourth axiom, like all the others, is clearly a very simple assertion. It is how Euclid ingeniously utilizes these axioms, however, that holds importance. more...
Euclid's Third Axiom: An Ingenious, Fundamental Definition of a Circle
Category: Math
Euclid's third axiom describes how a simple circle, one of the most important figures in geometry, can be constructed using only a point and a line. more...
The Venerable Bede: The Life and Works of the Father of English History
Category: British Dark & Middle Ages
Bede was a crucial figure in the world of historical scholarship, being one of the first true historians, and writing the first great work of English history. more...
Euclid's Second Axiom: A Subtle Definition of the Infinite Nature of Straight Lines
Category: Math
On the second of five axioms upon which was built the foundations of geometry, Euclid further explores the nature of straight lines. more...
The First Breakfast Cereal: Dr. Kellog and the Invention of Cornflakes
Category: American History (general)
Corn Flakes, the first ever breakfast cereal, were discovered by way of a fortunate accident. But it is the story behind this accident which is especially interesting. more...
The Embargo Act of 1807: Thomas Jefferson’s Failed Foreign Relations Policy
Category: American History (general)
While the intentions of the act may have been noble, in reality, the embargo act of 1807 meant to hurt the British and the French ended in failure. more...
Category: Math/Chaos Theory (general)
As part of his "Miracle Year" in 1905, Albert Einstein gave the new "quantum" ideas a jump start with his solution to a nineteenth century problem. more...
Max Planck and Light Quanta: The Solution to the Problem of Black-Body Radiation
Category: Quantum Physics
In 1900, Max Planck announced a solution to the black-body problem, and in doing so set physics on a revolutionary new path altogether. more...
The Photoelectric Effect: Phillip Lenard’s Experiment with Light and Electrons
Category: Quantum Physics
Toward the beginning of the twentieth century, the problems were beginning to mount for classical physics, paving the way for the new science of quantum mechanics. more...
What is Chaos Theory?: Principles of Comprehending the Chaotic Natural World
Category: Chaos Theory
The search to understanding chaos is the search to be able to apply a precise mathematical definition to systems which seem on the surface to be undefinable. more...
The False Dmitri's of Russia: The Sons of Ivan the Terrible and the Fight for Succession
Category: Polish & Baltic History
Around the turn of the seventeenth century, during Russia's "Time of Troubles," several men arose pretending to be the slain heir to the Russian throne, Dmitri Ivanovich. more...
America's Independence Day: The Arbitrary, yet Symbolic, Nature of the Fourth of July
Category: American History (general)
American's have celebrated the signing of the Declaration of Independence ever since it was first signed in 1776 - but why exactly was this day chosen above the others? more...
Music and Mathematics: The Relationship between the Worlds of Harmony and of Numbers
Category: Math
Mathematicians have been exploring the mysteries of music for centuries. The questions being asked are those which seek to better understand the perception of beauty. more...
Death by Black Hole: A Mesmerizing Look at Astrophysics by Neil DeGrasse Tyson
Category: Science/Tech Books (general)
Neil DeGrasse Tyson's new book explores the frontiers of modern astrophysics and explains how modern research is answering some of the universe's greatest questions. more...
The Unique Life of Jeffrey Hudson: A Man who Found Success Despite the Incredible Odds Against Him
Category: UK/Irish History (general)
Jeffrey Hudson was a little man who found himself thrust into the spotlight in Queen Henrietta's court in the 17th century. From there, his life got truly interesting. more...
Bose-Einstein Statistics: The Indian Contribution to Quantum Mechanics
Category: Atomic/Molecular/Optical Physics
Satyendra Bose and Albert Einstein published a paper in 1924 which to this day helps to explain the difference between various types of subatomic particles. more...
For a Successful Paint Project: A Few Tips Regarding What to Know Before Heading to the Paint Store
Category: Home Interiors
For do-it-yourselfers, it is important (to save both time and money) to have a good idea of what the paint project entails before heading to the paint store for supplies. more...
Court Jesters in Western Europe: The Surprising Accuracy of the Modern Perception of these Comedians
Category: W European History (general)
Though many modern perceptions of historical events tend to get shrouded or distorted with the passing of time, the person of the jester has remained surprisingly intact. more...
Linear and Circular Accelerators: The Modern World of Particle Acceleration and Discovery
Category: Particle Physics
Particle Accelerators form an enormous part of physical discovery, and as such, they are constantly getting bigger, better, and (much) more expensive. more...
Plastic Pipes Used in Plumbing: A Brief Overview of a Wide Variety of Pipes and Tubes
Category: Home Plumbing
Before a homeowner attempts to do any home plumbing, it is important that they know exactly which type of pipes or tubes to use, as they all serve different purposes. more...
The 1814 Pemmican War: How a Traditional Native American Food Started a War
Category: Colonial America
There have been some strange war instigators over the course of human history. In North America, for example, a small war was fought over a food called Pemmican. more...
Glossy or Matte Paint Sheen?: A Guide to Undrstanding Which Paint Finish Serves Which Purpose
Category: Home Renovation/Repair (general)
Every paint manufacturer seems to have their own "palette" of paint sheens. There are consistent principles, however, that can help one know which sheen to choose. more...
General George Pickett: The Story of the Man Behind the Famed "Pickett's Charge"
Category: US Civil War
Civil War General George Pickett lived an interesting life which took him from West Point, to a near-war with the British in Washington, to a famous Civil War battle. more...
The Pre-Washington U.S. Presidency: Presidents of the United States in Congress Assembled
Category: Colonial America
There were fourteen men who some may consider to have been America's first Presidents, even before the time of George Washington and the Constitution. more...
A Few Rules for Plumbing Repair: Tips for Finding the Right Part or Accessory for Any Project
Category: Home Plumbing
Avoiding common mistakes when trying to find the right plumbing tool or part can save time, money and unneeded stress. Following these simple rules will certainly help. more...
Paul Dirac and the Positron: A Triumph of Mathematics in the First Anti-Particle
Category: Particle Physics
In the late 1920's Paul Dirac it was discovered that "normal" electrons might not be the only ones to exist. There might be an "opposite" particle as well. more...
The Quantum Totalitarian Principle: Discovering New Physical Laws Using Bizarre Quantum Properties
Category: Particle Physics
The Totalitarian Principle declares that anything which is not forbidden by any specific rule of physics, is required by law to occur, with no exceptions. more...
Fix the Inner Workings of a Toilet: Common Toilet Parts, Problems and Repairs
Category: Home Plumbing
The workings of common toilets are actually relatively simple, and knowledge of these things can make simple repairs a snap, even for the beginning DIYer. more...
Beta Decay and the Weak Force: The Development of an Entirely New Physical Force
Category: Atomic/Molecular/Optical Physics
In order for physicists to understand the reasons for beta decay, a new nuclear force had to be developed - a task accomplished by Enrico Fermi in 1934. more...
The Beginnings of Nuclear Physics: Bequerel, The Curies, Rutherford and Radioactivity
Category: Atomic/Molecular/Optical Physics
In the final decades of the nineteenth and first few decades of the twentieth centuries, physicists would begin to unlock the mysteries of radioactivity. more...
Quintilian: Roman Orator: A Look at Rome During the First Century
Category: Roman History
The life of Marcus Fabius Qintilianus followed closely with the interesting events during the second half of the first century, a troubled time for the Roman Empire. more...
The Karman Line: Theodore Von Karman and the Separation of Earth and Space
Category: Astronomy & Space (general)
Theodore Von Karman was responsible for many important achievements in Aeronautics, including the boundary between Earth and Space. more...
From a Flat to a Round Earth: The History behind the Determination of the Shape of the Planet
Category: Ancient History (general)
The true shape of the Earth has been known far longer than most people realize. The idea of the Earth being round dates back to ancient Greece. more...
Julius Caesar Crosses the Rubicon: A Defining Moment in Western Civilization
Category: Roman History
While it may seem to be a trivial geographical barrier, when Julius Caesar crossed the Rubicon with his army in A.D. 49, he effectively changed the course of history. more...
The Languages of Ancient Egypt: From Hieroglyphics to Coptic - A Philological Examination
Category: Language Study (general)
The Egyptian language is beautifully demonstrative of how a language can change over time through a natural, philological progression. more...
Various Forms of Theft: Elucidating the Subtle Legal Definitions
Category: Law
There are many different forms of theft, the various nuanced differences are not generally understood. A brief overview should clear up the issue. more...
The Golden Ratio: A Mathematical Definition of Beauty
Category: Math
For thousands of years, the fact that aesthetic beauty could be determined by mathematical relationships baffled mathematicians, yet the truth of it is hard to deny. more...
John Dalton and Atomic Theory: A 19th Century Chemist Reinvigorates the Atom
Category: Atomic/Molecular/Optical Physics
After having sat dormant for more than two thousand years, atomic theory was finally brought into the modern age with the work of John Dalton. more...
Ancient Theories of Atoms: The Study of the Smallest Things in the Ancient World
Category: Atomic/Molecular/Optical Physics
Atoms, of course, have existed since the beginning of time. Man's study of them, however, did not begin until considerably after that. more...
The Paradoxes of Zeno of Elea: A Philosophical Examination of the Infinite
Category: Philosophy (general)
Zeno of Elea may have been an iconoclast, but he posed several interesting problems that would baffle thinkers for generations to come. more...
The Seven Wise Men of Greece: Important Wisdom in a Time of Necessity
Category: Greek History
Seven Wise Men (or "sages") helped Greece to rise up out of one of the darkest periods of its history. They helped the Greeks learn how to think. more...
The Pythagorian School: Foundations of the Philosophy of Mathematics
Category: Math
While the Greek mathematician Pythagoras may have been brilliant, he also possessed certain interesting "eccentricities," in keeping with the times. more...
Athenian Democracy: The Greek Origins of Rule by the People
Category: Greek History
It is a well-established historical fact that Democracy began with the Greeks; but how similar was this system to those in the modern world? more...
Kant's Categorical Imperative: The Key to Telling Right from Wrong
Category: Philosophy (general)
The question of choosing one's moral path in life is never an easy one. Within the philosophy of Immanuel Kant, however, is one method of doing just that. more...
The American Know-Nothings: The Nation's Most Popular Nativist Party
Category: American History (general)
In the middle of the 19th century, a new party began to rise up through the ranks of American Politics. The Know-Nothings were anti Catholic and anti Immigration. more...
The Politics of Anarchy: The History, Beliefs, and Philosophy of Anarchists
Category: Political Philosophy
Throughout history there have been those who have been fundamentally opposed to all government and rule of law. Today these people are called anarchists. more...
The Right of Habeas Corpus: A Truly Fundamental Human Right
Category: Law
In the post-9/11 world, there has been much talk about suspended freedoms and loss of civil liberties, and the "abolishment" of habeas corpus. But what does this mean? more...
Senator David Rice Atchison: The Real Twelfth President of the United States
Category: American History (general)
David Rice Atchison was President of the United States for a single day, between the terms of James Polk and Zachary Taylor. America's most honest president. more...
Carpetbaggers and Reconstruction: American Opportunism in the Post-Civil War Years
Category: US Civil War
"Carpetbaggers" were the controversial northerners who moved to the south for political and business opportunities during the reconstruction period. more...
Great Britain's "Project Habakkuk": One of the More Unusual Ideas to Come Out Of World War II
Category: WW II History
During the height of World War II, Winston Churchill authorized research concerning the construction of a new type of ship for his navy - an aircraft carrier made of ice. more...
The Short Life of the Pony Express: America's Quickest Trans-Continental Mail Service
Category: American History (general)
America's famed pre-railroad mails service, the Pony Express, was a convincing demonstration of just how efficiently a delivery service could operate. more...
The Court of Star Chamber: England's Ill-Defined, yet All-Purpose Court
Category: UK/Irish History (general)
For almost a century and a half the Court of Star Chamber ruled over all-classes of England, though both its purpose and operation were never fully clear. more...
Taphephobia: The Fear of Being Buried Alive
Category: Psychology (general)
Taphephobia, or the fear of premature burial, has probably been around for as long as humans themselves, though how it is dealt with has changed over the years. more...
The History of Anesthesia: The Long Struggle to Create Pain-Killers
Category: General Medicine (general)
While human beings have been aware of certain methods of "dulling pain" for nearly two thousand years, only recently was this science mastered. more...
The Math of General Relativity: Albert Einstein's Trouble with Tensor Calculus
Category: Math
While the world rightly perceives Albert Einstein as having been a brilliant physicist, the mathematics of General Relativity were so difficult as to be beyond even him. more...
The Steam-Powered Fire Engine: Cincinnati's Noble Contribution to Fire-Fighting History
Category: American History (general)
The first official steam-powered fire engine was built in Cincinnati, Oh in 1852, though it wasn't received at the time with as much positive enthusiasm as it probably de more...
The Universe's Fourth Dimension: Herman Minkowski, Albert Einstein, and the Creation of Space-Time
Category: Physics (general)
One of the fundamental results of Einstein's theory of Special Relativity was the discovery of the inherent interconnectedness of the dimensions of space and time. more...
Ornithopter Flying Machines: The Ancient Origins of an Invention
Category: Aviation History
From Greek mythology to modern engineering, the history of the flying machine known as the ornithopter has come a long way. more...
The Equivalence of Mass and Energy: Special Relativity and E = mc²
Category: Physics (general)
Einstein's theory of special relativity resulted in perhaps the most famous equation every created, and changed the world of science forever. more...
The Addition of Velocities: How Special Relativity and the Constant Speed Affect Measurement
Category: Physics (general)
In theory, the law of the addition of velocities seems to be perfectly logical. When viewed in light of relativity, however, everything begins to change. more...
Istanbul's Hagia Sophia: An East Meets West Example of Byzantine Architecture
Category: Architecture (general)
In present-day Istanbul lies a magnificent church which possesses a history which embodies the very definition of the phrase "East meets West." more...
The Lorentz Transformation: Reconciling Space and Time with the Speed of Light
Category: Physics (general)
The mathematical work of H.A. Lorentz would prove invaluable to Albert Einstein as he attempted to work out his theory of Special Relativity. more...
The Gothic War: The Visigoths and the Fall of the Western Roman Empire
Category: Roman History
Many historians view the defeat of Rome in the 4th century war against the Visigoths with the fall of the Western half of the Roman Empire. It certainly didn't help. more...
Relativity and Electromagnetism: The Problem with the Speed of Light
Category: Physics (general)
The first and foremost issue that set Einstein's new view of relativity apart from the relativity of Galileo were the problems encountered with the new study of light. more...
The Cause of the Vandal: The Unfair Legacy of an Empire
Category: Roman History
The Vandal people, despite causing Rome some grief in the 5th Century, have been given a bad rap. A quick glance at their history will shed some light on the subject. more...
The XYZ Affair: Events Leading up to America's Quasi War with France
Category: American History (general)
During the years immediately leading up to the 19th century, America suddenly found standing at the doorstep of war with a leading European power. more...
The Study of Light: The History of Illumination
Category: Physics (general)
To understand Special Relativity one must begin by understanding how light has been viewed throughout history. more...
The Real Vikings: Myths and Legends of Scandinavian Warriors
Category: Scandinavian History
Misconceptions abound regarding the ancient Vikings and their behaviors. The truth about Vikings, however, can be just as interesting. more...
Induction vs. Deduction in Science: The Techniques Involved in Creating a Good Scientific Theory
Category: Physics (general)
The "Scientific Method" is often summed up as a choice between two diametrically opposed, yet often coexisting modes of thought: Induction and Deduction more...
The Hollow Earth Thoery: The Historical View that the Earth May Indeed be Hollow
Category: Scientific Inquiry (general)
The Hollow Earth Theory was remarkable in its ability to survive the scientific advances of the 18th and 19th centuries, surviving even until the early 20th century. more...
US Presidential Election of 1800: A Defining Moment in the History of American Politics
Category: American History (general)
The presidential election of 1800 was the first truly disputed election in our nation's history, and became a defining event in shaping the United States Constitution. more...
