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Ancient British History

The Significance and Importance of Kent in Ancient Britain
Kent was the site of many important events in Ancient Britain, including the first written Code of Laws and the first Saxon settlement.
Caratacus: The Roman Enemy Who Survived Defeat
Caratacus, king of the Catuvellauni, led resistance against the Roman occupation for nearly a decade. He impressed Rome so much that Emperor Claudius spared his life.
Avalon: Place of Mystery and Fancy
Avalon is a mystical place that may or may not be Glastonbury.
The Chariot: Ancient Britons' Armored Personnel Carrier
The chariot was very much in use in ancient British warfare.
Silbury Hill: Ancient Mound of Mystery
Silbury Hill, nearby to the Avebury complex, is another man-made mystery from prehistoric times.
Avebury Hill: More Majestic Than Stonehenge
Avebury Hill is a vast megalithic construction that is larger and was more important than the stones at Stonehenge.
Did Arthur Really Live? A Critical Look
Assertions that no facts exist to prove that Arthur really lived are just one way of looking at the Matter of Britain.
Ancient Festivals of the Celts
The Celts of Ancient Britain had four major festivals throughout their harvest-based calendar year. Each had a different purpose and different practices, and each can be found as the root of holidays today.
Christmas: Resonances in Ancient Britain
Christmas traditions have roots in ancient practices.
Bronze Age Cremation Pits Discovered
Archaeologists have discovered cremation pits dating back to the Bronze Age, a very significant find indeed.
1066: A Peek at the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle describes how different sides can see a different story.
First Viking Burial Site Found in England
The bodies of two women and four men confirm the discovery of the first Viking burial site ever found in England.
From Hastings to Crowning
William of Normandy eventually became King William of England, but it didn't happen overnight or even a week after his decisive victory at the Battle of Hastings.
King Arthur: Impressions on Seeing the Movie
Impressions on the King Arthur movie in theaters in summer 2004
Battle of Hastings: The Finale
The Battle of Hastings ended in victory for William and defeat and death for Harold. But William would find it tough going, both near the end of the battle and after.
Battle of Hastings, Part 2
Harold was holding his own quite well against the Norman advance, until William came up with a way to root the Saxons out of their defensive positions.
Battle of Hastings Part 1
The Battle of Hastings started out well for Harold. Would William be able to finish the job?
The Battle of Hastings: Prelude
Harold and his men had to march the length of England to deal with a new, more dangerous threat, hard on the heels of a great and glorious victory. William and his men, on the other hand, were rested and ready to claim what they thought was naturally theirs.
Stamford Bridge: The Final End of the Viking Threat
Harold and his army scored a smashing victory over the Norwegian invaders at Stamford Bridge only to hear of a Norman invasion in the south.
William of Normandy: A Disputed Crown
William of Normandy had lots of power at his disposal and a full head of steam operating on an alleged promise of the crown of England and a disputed oath of fealty.
Harald Hardrada: A New Iron Fist Arrives
Harald Hardrada was King of Norway at the time of the Norman Conquest. He wanted the throne of England just like everybody else.
Harold and the Beginning of the End
Harold found himself on the throne of England and beset on all sides by competing claims.
Edward the Confessor
Edward the Confessor set the stage for the Norman Conquest by his actions and his affectations.
Harald Harefoot and Hardacanute: The End of the Danish Line
Harald Harefoot and Hardacanute, the sons of Canute, were the last Danish kings of England.
Canute: Foreigner in a Foreign Land
Canute, a foreign king, was embraced by the English as their own ruler. He proved himself worthy of the task, bringing 18 years of peace.
From Ironside to Son of Ironfist
After the death of Aethelred, England suffered through the brief reign of Edmund and then embarked on the brutal reign of Canute of Denmark.
Aethelred the Unready: Part II
Aethelred's last days were filled with remorse and regret.
Aethelred the Unready
Aethelred assumed the throne of England at a time when someone of Alfred's magnitude and ability was needed. Aethelred had neither.
Edward the Martyr
Edward the Martyr didn't rule very long, but his legacy lives to this day, largely for the manner of his death and the amazing things that are purported to have happened since his death.
Eadgar: The Last Happy King?
Eadgar had a peaceful kingdom and a beautiful queen. Most of the other leaders in Britain pledged their allegiance to him as protector of all England. It was a happy, peaceful time; but the peace would not last.
Eadwig: Teen King With a Short Reign
Eadwig inherited the throne at 16. He died at 20. In between, he did very little to distinguish himself on the battlefield but plenty to be remembered by the church.
Eadred: Controlled Rage in a King
Eadred's reign as King of England was marked by battles against the uprising-happy Northumbrians.
Edmund the Magnificent: A great (young) warrior
Edmund the Magnificent had a brief but outstanding reign, resolidifying the gains of his father and grandfather.
Athelstan the Great?
Athelstan was a military success if not quite able successor to his grandfather, Alfred the Great.
Edward the Elder: Alfred's Successful Successor
Alfred the Great left his kingdom to his son, Edward (the Elder) who protected it very well.
Alfred: Bringer of Knowledge
Alfred the Great promoted education and learning among his people. In this, he saw far into the future, when England would be united.
Alfred's Ingenious Defensive Strategy
After the Danelaw, Alfred refused to rest on his successes, preferring to shore up his country's defenses, in preparation for what he knew was the next Danish invasion.
Bronze Age Surgery Evidence Found in Thames
A recently discovered skull seems to be evidence of Bronze Age brain surgery, done without anesthetic.
For $15, You Can Help Bury a Hundreds-Year-Old Body
A vicarage in Cherry Hinton, Cambridge is asking its congregation for $15 each to help rebury Anglo-Saxon bones, dug up during a church remodeling operation, that are thought to be between 900 and 1,300 years old.
Danegeld: Another Word for Blackmail
To keep the Danes (and other Viking invaders) happy, Saxons often paid a sort of blackmail called Danegeld.
The Danelaw (Or, How to Gain on Your Neighbors While Claiming to Protect Them)
Alfred the Great gained a lot from his smashing victory over the Vikings, including territory and political alliances. He proved to be a shrewd tactician in peace as well as in war.
The Coming of Alfred the Great
Alfred the Great didn't start out as great, but he worked his way into it.
Aethelwulf's Grand Experiment: A New Kind of Succession
Aethelwulf, king of Wessex, had a new idea for regal succession: have ALL of his sons become king before any of their sons could.
Aethelwulf: Worthy Successor?
Aethelwulf succeeded his father, Egbert, to the throne of Wessex. He suffered even more invasions from Danes and Northmen.
Vikings: Mobile Fighting Machines
The Vikings were better than the Saxons at using the resources they seized in battle to their own advantage.
The Thegn: Beholden to His King
The thegn got to rule a manor in his lord's name, in return for a pledge to serve in the lord's military service.
Vikings: Not Ones for Written Records
The Vikings didn't keep written records at first. Thus, the only accounts we have of the initial Viking invasions were written by the victims.
Two Views of Farming in Ancient Britain
Farming hasn't always been the same in Britain.
The Beginning of the Dane-Norse Invasions
The Anglo-Saxon invaders were themselves invaded, beginning in the late 8th century.
Stone Circles: Not Just at Stonehenge
Stone circles can be found throughout Britain, not just at Stonehenge.
Three Overlords of England: A Study in Political Geography
Studying maps of the overlordship of Edwin, Offa, and Egbert shows us a good deal about the changing boundaries of English territory during the first century.
Egbert: First King of All English
King Egbert of Wessex was the first king to rule all of England, according to historians.
A True Miracle? Maybe Only in the Telling
Was Pope Leo III really muted and blinded? The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle says so. Read further to gain context and commentary.
An Anglo-Saxon Thanksgiving? Perhaps
It is not a stretch to imagine Angles and Saxons sitting around a table enjoying a feast to celebrate the autumn harvest.
Coenwulf: Mercian Overlord and Tyrant
Coenwulf as King of Mercia was an oppressor in Offa's footsteps.
The Lindisfarne Gospels: A 7th-Century Thing of Beauty
The Lindisfarne Gospels are a thing of beauty.
Offa a Muslim? What Does This Question Really Tell Us?
Was Offa a Muslim? One theory aims to prove so. But this question raises a larger question? Does it matter?
A King Is Burnt to Death: What Caused It?
In 687, King Mul of Kent and 12 of his companions were burnt to death during an uprising. Was it an accident, or was it murder?
Glastonbury: More Christian "Borrowing"
Glastonbury Abbey is another example of the Christian practice of "borrowing" places and traditions from other peoples and othe religions.
Glastonbury Abbey: Christian Beginnings in Wessex
Glastonbury Abbey was made possible by a grant from King Ine of Wessex in 704.
The Dooms of King Ine
The Dooms (or laws) of King Ine were the first step toward modern common law. This was in the 7th and 8th Centuries.
The First Viking Landings in Britain
The Vikings first landed in Britain in 787. It was a case of role-reversal for the Germanic tribes, who themselves had "landed" in Britain centuries before.
Heavenly Happenings in Anglo-Saxon Times
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle has some interesting mentions of comets, eclipses, and other heavenly happenings.
Alcuin: Saxon Scholar of the First Order
Alcuin did a great deal toward enriching the learning of his fellow Saxons and people in France.
Offa's Dyke: Moving Earth and Earth
Offa's Dyke was a monumental achievement. It was a huge ditch coupled with a huge earthwork that proved virtually impregnable.
Offa: Mercia's Greatest King
Offa was the greatest king Mercia ever had. He was a powerful man, holding sway over southern Britain. He influence Charlemagne and the pope.
Ethelbald: First Great King of Mercia
Ethelbald brought most of Southern Britain under his sway under the banner of Mercia and paved the way for Mercia's most famous king, Offa.
Ethelred: Kingly Conversion to the Monastery
Ethelred, King of Mercia, gave up his kingship to enter a monastery--shocking but true.
Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People
Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People gives us a glimpse into Christian Saxon life in the 7th and 8th centuries.
The Venerable Bede: The Most Learned Man of His Time
Bede was a monk, a historian, and a writer. He was excellent at everything he did, writing about history, cosmology, hymns, scriptures, and much more.
The Anglo-Saxon Kingship: A Different Sort of Succession
The Germanic kings got (and kept) their thrones by fighting, not by bloodlines.
The Mists of Avalon--on TV
The TV version of Marion Zimmer Bradley's beloved book The Mists of Avalon was good and good-looking but much too short.
A Clash of Beliefs: Religion in Anglo-Saxon Britain
The Germanic tribes were used to worshipping gods who helped them achieve material goals. Christianity offered a far different kind of religious structure.
Columba and the Loch Ness Monster
The origin of the story of the Loch Ness Monster can be traced to a story about Columba, a patron saint of old.
The Saxon House
What was the Saxon house like? It was mainly made of wood, with a sunken floor and a thatched roof.
Hild: The Power of One Woman in 7th-Century Britain
Hild, the founder of the monasteries at Whitby, was a powerful woman in a certain respect.
Ceorl: What's in a Word?
The word churl did not always mean someone who was ill-mannered. Its meaning was originally a member of a lower social class.
Life in Anglo-Saxon England
Your life in Anglo-Saxon England largely depended on your station and gender.
Northumbria: Battleground of Christianity
Northumbria was the battleground of Christianity in the 7th century.
Paulinus: Deliverer of Northumbria
Paulinus converted Northumbria to Christianity.
Sutton Hoo: Treasure Trove of Saxon Culture
Sutton Hoo is a burial ground that houses a wealth of artifacts (including the outline of a large wooden ship) that give us a glimpse into Anglo-Saxon life in the 7th century.
Raedwald: East Anglian King and All-Around Kingmaker
Raedwald was the first King of East Anglia. He was also a kingmaker. And, he is thought to have been buried at the famous burial site at Sutton Hoo.
The Beginning of the World?
The Anglo-Saxon tells us that the world began in 5003 B.C. Is this correct? Does it matter?
Cadwallon: Leader of Gwynedd
Cadwallon went from boyhood friend of Edwin of Northumbria to mortal enemy in a few short years. He survived their battlefield encounter; Edwin did not.
Penda: Middle Anglian Warlord Extraordinaire
Penda built his kingdom of Mercia into a powerhouse through sheer will and good soldiership.
Edwin's Lasting Legacy
King Edwin of Northumbria gave us many things, including the beauty of York and Edinburgh. He also brought peace to the north, which hadn't seen such peace in a long time.
Edwin: Northumbria's Shining Star
Edwin of Northumbria let ambition carry him to the top of the Anglo-Saxon heap. Then, it got the better of him.
The Gododdin: Heroic Defeat and Arthur
The Gododdin, a 7th-century poem, tells of a heroic charge by vastly outnumbered Britons against the Angles at a place called Catraeth. The poem also mentions Arthur.
Where is Arthur? Camlann and Beyond
What has happened to Arthur? Why isn't his story being told?
The Weapons of War in Anglo-Saxon England
The Germanic tribes used other weapons and other forms of warfare to their advantage, but the ones discussed above were the main means to the end of conquest, a desire that ran deep in the blood of every Jute, Angle, Saxon.
Anglo-Saxon Infighting: Everyone Wants to Be King
Once the Germanic invaders had subdued the Britons, they turned on each other.
The Heptarchy: Anglo-Saxon Ascendancy
The Anglo-Saxon settlers formed seven large kingdoms called the Heptarchy.
The Synod of Whitby: Turning Point for Christian Britain
The Synod of Whitby brought leaders of Celtic and Roman Christianity together. They decided to follow only Roman teachings.
Patrick and Columba: The Beginnings of Celtic Christianity
Patrick in Ireland and Columba in Scotland began Celtic Christianity.
Writing: A Revolution in Saxon England
Saxons came, conquered, but didn't write anything down. That's why we know so little about the first Saxon centuries in Britain. The victors write the history books; but if they don't write anything, then we have nothing at all.
Christianity in Kent: Not Exactly an Inquisition
Christianity came slowly to Saxon England. But once started, it never stopped.
Wergild: Anglo-Saxon Social Structure in One Word
The Anglo-Saxon concept of wergild, or monetary prize claimed to avenge a man's death, neatly divided the society into classes.
Ethelbert and the Code of Laws
Ethelbert ruled Kent and parts of the rest of Saxon England at the turn of the 7th century. He was the third overlord. He also gave us a code of laws.
Saxons on Horseback? Why Not?
Why didn't the Saxons fight on horseback? Some of them were trained in Roman legions, so they must have known how. It's a mystery that hasn't yet been solved. ,Why didn't the Saxons fight on horseback? Some of them were trained in Roman legions, so they must have known how. It's a mystery that hasn't yet been solved.
Archaeology: Key to Understanding Ancient Britain
Archaeology can provide clues to how people in ancient Britain lived.
Gildas: The Monk Who Began the Historical View
Gildas, a monk writing in the 6th century, gives us the first accurate picture of the time of Vortigern, Arthur, and Badon Hill.
Overlord: Saxons Learn from Their Enemies
The Saxons learned from the British High-King example how to unite disparate peoples under a common banner.
Aelle: First of the Great Saxon Kings
Aelle founded the kingdom of the South Saxons, known as Sussex. He was the first of the so-called overlords that ruled Saxon England for generations.
Badon Hill: The Importance of Defending Bath
Badon Hill as being near Bath would have been explained by the still thriving Roman city of Bath: Britons would have wanted to keep it; Saxons would have wanted to seize it.
Mount Badon: The Importance of the High Ground
The Battle of Badon Hill illustrated the importance of high ground: as a defensive strategy and as a scouting strategy.
Mount Badon: Arthur's Greatest Victory
Arthur's greatest battle was atop Badon Hill. But where was this place?
Nennius and Arthur's 12 Battles
Nennius, a 9th century monk, writes of Arthur's 12 great battles. Where were they? No one really knows.
Into the Void: The Emergence of Ambrosius and Arthur
Ambrosius and Arthur stepped into the fray to try to keep Britain from falling prey to Saxon domination. ,Ambrosius and Arthur stepped into the fray to try to keep Britain from falling prey to Saxon domination.
Far-sighted Romans, Short-sighted Britons
The Romans built the Saxon Shore forts to keep out Saxons, Angles, and Jutes who were harassing trade with Britannia. The Britons had no such foresight, instead inviting the Saxons onto the island--from foresight to short-sight.
The Sword in the Stone: An Error in Translation?
Did Arthur pull the sword from the Stone? What if he pulled the sword from the Saxon? It could have been an error in translation.
Why Vortigern?
Vortigern gets the blame for inviting Hengist and the rest of the Saxons into Britain. Is this blame justified?
The Saxon Occupation: An Innocent Beginning
The Saxon occupation of England began innocently enough--as a response to a call for help from Vortigern, who wanted to solidify his position as High-King of Britain.
Religion in Ancient Britain: Cauldron Beneath the Surface
Religion in ancient Britain was a cauldron boiling beneath the surface, rarely the outright cause of conflict but still the underlying pretext for mistrust.
The Downside of Finding King Arthur
Historians struggle mightily to prove the existence of Arthur, but finding a body and a description might very well undo all the legends surrounding a (possibly) great man.
The Pictish Connection in Arthurian History
The Picts, marauders from Scotland, contributed to Arthurian history in a few significant ways.
What the Romans Found: The Picts
The Picts put up a bloody good fight against Roman occupation.
Celtic Influence on Arthurian History
The Celts influenced Arthurian history as well as Arthurian fact.
Druids: The Iron Rulers of the Celts
The Druids ruled the Celts with iron fists, keeping their traditions in their own heads and sharing them with a precious few. The Druids ruled the religion, laws, and science of the Celts.
What the Romans Found: The Celts
The Romans found the Celts to be stubborn antagonists for awhile, but even the staunch Celts had to retire north and west in the face of Roman advance. The Celts, however, kept their traditions alive through oral traditions.
No Eyewitnesses: A Historical Difficulty
No eyewitness accounts of Arthur's exploits are available. That's why it's so difficult to find the historical truth.
The Significance of the Hill-Fort: Social
The hill-forts of Late Bronze Age and Iron Age Britain had three main areas of significance: military, economic, and social. This article focuses on the third: social.
The Significance of the Hill-Fort: Economic
The hill-forts of Late Bronze Age and Iron Age Britain had three main areas of significance: military, economic, and social. This article focuses on the second: economics.
The Significance of the Hill-Fort: Military
The hill-forts of Late Bronze Age and Iron Age Britain had three main areas of significance: military, economic, and social. This article focuses on the first: military.
What the Romans Found: The Belgae
Julius Caesar drove the Belgae out of Gaul and then found them in Britain.
What the Romans Left Behind: Arthur?
Was King Arthur a Roman or a Briton styled in the Roman tradition?
In Most of Arthurian Lore, Women Get a Bad Rap
The Arthurian stories, beginning the Middle Ages, blamed women for most of the problems.
What the Romans Left Behind: The Aqueducts
The Roman aqueduct solved the problem of water shortage in ever growing cities.
What the Romans Left Behind: Hadrian's Wall
Hadrian's Wall formed the northern boundary of the Roman Empire in Britain. It still stands.
What the Romans Left Behind: The Baths
A main part of Roman life was the bath. It wasn't just bathing, and it wasn't just at home. Public baths containing several rooms housed bath rooms as well as gyms and recreational reading rooms.
What the Romans Left Behind: The Roads
The Roman road is wonder of engineering. The techniques used and the theories behind them are still studied today. Many of these concrete roads survive.
A Curious Adherence to Hereditary Right
King Arthur's claim to the British throne was simple: He was the son of the High King. But why the nobles recognized this claim is a different question entirely.
Boudicca: A Woman Warlord's Rebellion
In 60-61, Boudicca, warrior queen of the Iceni, revolted against Roman rule. Her forces at one time numbered 200,000. It took all the might of the Romans to overcome her.
Claudius: The Roman Conquest of Britain
The Emperor Claudius finished what Julius Caesar started. In 43, Claudius led the conquest of Britain, making the island a province of the Roman Empire.
Julius Caesar: The Roman Who "Invaded" Britain
Julius Caesar arrived in 55 B.C. He came back a year later. His presence left a lasting impression on the ancient Britons.
Stonehenge Is Still a Mystery
Was Stonehenge a place of sun worship or an astronomical tool? Maybe neither. Nobody knows for sure still.
King Arthur's Swords: Ancient Water Rites
The Sword that the Lady of the Lake gave Arthur and Excalibur, which he gave to the Lady, were votive offerings in water rites, another example of how the Arthurian story has a basis in fact.
Hoarding: A Bronze Age Conundrum
In the Bronze Age, people began to hoard things--sword, animal skins, anything that showed wealth. But hoarding also had religious significance, especially the hoards that could not be retrieved.
The Odyssey: Adventure Story or Coded Message?
Part 2 of a review of Iman Wilkens's book Where Troy Once Stood. In this part, Wilkens asserts that Homer's Odyssey was a set of sailing directions, not the story of a famous adventurer.
The Trojan War: Another Look
Review of book purporting to prove that the Trojan War was fought in England
The Arthurian saga: fairy tale, folktale, mystery, morality play
King Arthur tale appeals to many people because it has elements of a fairy tale, a folktale, a historical mystery, and a morality play--all in one sweeping saga.
Cadbury: Was It Camelot?
A historical and geographical examination of the claim that Cadbury Castle was Arthur's stronghold.

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