As the cycle of Russian political economy again evolves, the old rules still hold true. Now on its third tumble down the hill of upheaval and reform, Russia seems unable to grasp some aspects of its tormented legacy. Tsars led the first voyage; Soviet communists led the second trek; self-described democratic reformers lead the third expedition. Like their predecessors, the reformers will find at the end of their grand experiment exactly what they found at its outset: a corrupt state; a repressive, authoritarian government; social depravity and disorder; unpaid workers and impending famine. Then they will face their ousters across the barricades, and they will fight to the end to keep their trappings of power.
Tsar Ivan III ("Ivan the Terrible") (1543-1571) rapidly consolidated his power and sought the unflenching loyalty of the boyars. To accomplish this task, he organized bands of his supporters to roam the countryside to find and punish all disloyal landowners. These loyalists and de facto executioners bore the title "opritchniki" (operators). Although their activities ensured boyar loyalty to the tsar, the "opritchniki" established an enduring Russian institution: the concept of a state-controlled mechanism to suppress opposition.
Ivan III permanently influenced Russian political culture, but he was not part of the Romanov dynasty. The Romanovs did not rule Russia until 1613 when a succession crisis emerged, and the boyars were asked to elect their next leader. Mikhail Romanov was selected; his descendants would rule Russia during the next 300 years.
Peter I ("Peter the Great") (1689-1721) was perhaps the most influential of the Romanov tsars. During his reign, the boyars were urged to accept Western attitudes and beliefs. The boyars revolted, and Peter confronted the risk of civil war. Some boyars agreed with Peter; other boyar leaders perceived Peter disliked and degraded Russian traditions. A revolt of the Strautzy class (1689) forced Peter to invoke military authority to preserve his reign. This near-putsch left the tsar more skeptical of his opponents. This quasi-paranoia persisted until he died. The fact that Peter died within a year after his final victory against the Swedish king Charles VII left the internal disputes quite unresolved. This Western/Slavic controversy philosophically troubled Russia during the next two centuries.
Peter admired the efficiency and progress of Western European capitalists. His particular effinity was for shipbuilding. That fascination led him to push Russia's border west to the Baltic Sea where he established his new capital at St. Petersburg. Convicts and exiles provided most of the labor to build the city. St. Petersburg was the only European capital to be built for that specific purpose. The other European capitals are "natural" capitals or cities that evolved into capitals as other regions evolved into provinces.
