Torture and the Witchcraze of Early Modern Europe: Continued

Women in the early modern period were largely defined by their sexuality. As has been discussed, aberrant sexuality was believed to be a common quality among witches. "Good" women were also defined by their sexuality. The primary social function of women in this period was motherhood. The vast majority of women spent most of their adult lives pregnant, nursing, or grieving their children. The social value of women decreased considerably when they became too old to bear children. The women in the audience at the Pappenheimer's execution must have been deeply affected by what they witnessed there.

The older, postmenopausal women in the audience surely identified with Anna Pappenheimer. She was, like them, an older woman. She had likely born many children, but only three survived. The women of Munich were aware that older women were the most likely group to be accused of witchcraft. They were also well aware that their own social worth was unfortunately minimal. Many older women were widowed and forced to live on the charity of their children or neighbors. They were often thought to be a social burden. The threat of accusation and conviction was clearly implied in the society at large. Women, especially older women, should be particularly careful to avoid offending, or appearing shrewish, or participating in or displaying any unusual behaviors. Silence was safety for the older women in the audience, and those of Munich who did not witness the executions as well.

Women still in their childbearing years saw their roles as mothers questioned and threatened. They saw in Anna a woman who lacked even the ability to protect her own children from the wrath of others. Trials and public displays like the Pappenheimer trial served a social function. These trials firmly illustrated women's place in early modern society. Venturing out into public could prove dangerous. Providing care to other women in the form of midwifery could prove dangerous. Angering a neighbor could prove dangerous. The only security was within the walls of a woman's own home. The only safety laid in obedience to her husband and male relatives.

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